GrainGenes

ITEMS FROM THE UNITED STATES

 

 

KANSAS

KANSAS AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS
Room 200, 632 S.W. Van Buren, Topeka, KS 66603, USA.

E.J. Thiessen, Sherri Hand, and Ron Sitzman.

Jagger remains number one cultivar. [p. 213]

Jagger was the leading variety of wheat seeded in Kansas for the 2004 crop. Accounting for 40.9 percent of the state's wheat, Jagger decreased 4.3 points from a year ago but was the most popular cultivar in seven of the nine districts. The KSU-maintained cultivar 2137 ranked second, with 8.6 percent of the acreage, and ranked in the top 5 for all nine districts. TAM 110 remained in third position, increasing nearly 1 point from last year. Trego, a hard white wheat, moved up to fourth place with 3.5 percent of the acreage. New to the top ten is Jagalene, ranking fifth with 3.0 percent. The OSU-maintained cultivar 2174 moved down to sixth place with 2.8 percent of the state's acreage. Karl and improved Karl fell to seventh place, with 2.3

Table 1. Top 10 wheat cultivars grown in the state of Kansas for the 2004 crop and percent of seeded acreage.

Cultivar	% of acreage	Cultivar	% of acreage
1. Jagger	40.9	6. 2174	2.8
2. 2137	8.6	7. Karl	2.3
3. TAM 110	4.1	8. Ike	2.0
4. Trego	3.5	9. T81	1.8
5. Jagalene	3.0	10. Dominator	1.5

 

Table 2. Distribution of Kansas winter wheat cultivars, 2004 crop.

Table 3. Distribution of Kansas winter wheat cultivars, specified years.

 

Table 4. Top wheat varieties planted in Kansas in 2004 by district and percent of seeded acreage.

Cultivar	% of acreage	Cultivar	% of acreage	Cultivar	% of acreage
District 10 (Northwest)		District 40 (North central)		District 70 (Northeast)
Jagger	33.0	Jagger	28.2	2145	20.6
2137	9.1	Karl/Karl 92	8.5	Karl/Karl 92	19.7
Trego-HWWW	8.1	2137	8.0	2137	19.5
Thunderbolt	6.2	Dominator	5.1	Jagger	10.5
Stanton	3.5	2145	3.9	Dominator	4.9
District 20 (West central)		District 50 (Central)		District 80 (East central)
TAM 110	16.5	Jagger	43.1	Jagger	41.0
Jagger	14.9	2137	12.0	2137	26.5
Trego-HWWW	11.1	Dominator	4.7	Karl/Karl 92	7.2
2137	8.5	2174	2.9	2145	6.3
Akron	6.9	Karl/Karl 92	2.2	Dominator	4.0
District 30 (Southwest)		District 60 (South central)		District 90 (Southeast)
Jagger	32.5	Jagger	60.5	Jagger	35.9
TAM 110	13.7	2137	6.5	2137	21.9
2137	8.2	2174	6.2	2174	13.7
Ike	7.6	Jagalene	3.5	Jagalene	5.6
T81	7.1	Cutter	1.8	Onago	4.1

 

 

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

 

ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS GROUP

Department of Agronomy, Waters Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5501, USA.

Nitrogen mineralization rate of soil beneath a closed animal waste lagoon. [p. 217]

Fernando Madrid and M.B. Kirkham.

We reported in the Annual Wheat Newsletter of 2001 that wheat took up more nitrogen from soil at the bottom of a closed animal waste lagoon than it did from a Haynie very fine sandy soil, a common, nearby agricultural soil. The results showed that lagoon soil is a good fertilizer source and that the high levels of NH4-N in it are not toxic. We have continued the work with the lagoon soil, and here we report its rate of mineralization after closure. Soil was collected at three locations from a freshly emptied lagoon near Manhattan, KS: middle, southwest corner, and 18 m north of the southwest corner (same locations as reported in 2001). Soil samples were incubated for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 20, or 30 weeks. Mineralization rate in the lagoon soils was compared to that of the Haynie soil. The soil from the middle of the lagoon had the highest initial concentration of NH4-N (882 mg/kg). By comparison, the Haynie soil had a concentration of 2.8 mg/kg NH4-N. The conversion of the NH4-N to NO3-N in the soil from the middle of the lagoon was complete after 4 weeks, when the NH4-N concentration was 1.18 mg/kg and the NO3-N concentration was 1,094 mg/kg. During this 4-week period, NO3-N increased at a rate of 36.5 mg/kg per day. If all this NO3-N escaped to ground water, the U.S. drinking water standard for NO3-N (10 mg/l) would be exceeded by over three times. The results showed that NH4-N is converted rapidly to NO3-N (within a month) in the soil beneath a closed animal waste lagoon and that, once a lagoon becomes aerobic, the NO3-N formed would pose a serious threat to ground water.

 

News. [p. 217]

Dr. M. Stanley Liphadzi has returned to South Africa and now manages the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods program of the Grain and Industrial Crops section of the Agricultural Research Council. His address is: SRL Manager, Grain & Industrial Crops, Agricultural Research Council (ARC), Central Office, 1134 Park Street, Hatfield, Pretoria 001, South Africa.

Dr. J.K. (Ken) McCarron joined the group 1 March 2004 as a Visiting Scholar.

 

Publications. [p. 217]

• Bachmann J, Woche SK, Goebel M-O, Kirkham MB, and Horton R. 2003. Extended methodology for determining wetting properties of porous media. Water Resourc Res 39(12):SBH 11-1 through 11-14. (DOI: 10.1029/2003WR002143, 2003) (Water Resources Research no longer numbers pages sequentially in published volumes).
• Basinger JM, Kluitenberg GJ, Ham JM, Frank JM, Barnes PL, and Kirkham MB. 2003. Laboratory evaluation of the dual-probe heat-pulse method for measuring soil water content. Vadose Zone J 2:389-399.
• Kirkham MB. 2004. Water-use efficiency. In: Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment (Hillel D ed). Academic Press, San Diego, CA (in press).
• Liphadzi MS, Kirkham MB, Mankin KR, and Paulsen GM. 2003. EDTA-assisted heavy-metal uptake by poplar and sunflower grown at a long-term sewage-sludge farm. Plant Soil 257:171-182.
• Madrid F, Liphadzi MS, and Kirkham MB. 2003. Heavy metal displacement in chelate-irrigated soil during phytoremediation. J Hydrol 272:107-119.
• Van der Ploeg RR, Böhm W, and Kirkham MB. 2004. History of soil science: Justus von Liebig (1803-1873). In: Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment (Hillel D ed). Academic Press, San Diego, CA (in press).
• Xu Q and Kirkham MB. 2003. Combined effect of irradiance and water regime on sorghum photosynthesis. Photosynthetica 41:27-32.
• Zhu L and Kirkham MB. 2003. Initial crop growth in soil collected from a closed animal waste lagoon. Bioresource Technol 87:7-15.
• Zhu L and Kirkham MB. 2003. Plant remediation of soil beneath an abandoned waste lagoon. J Sustainable Agric 22:119-133.

THE WHEAT GENETICS RESOURCE CENTER

Department of Plant Pathology, Throckmorton Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5502, USA.

http://www.ksu.edu/wgrc/

 

B.S. Gill, W.J. Raupp, B. Friebe, L. Huang, V. Kuraparthy, W. Li, M. Pumphrey, L. Qi, D. See, D.L. Wilson, and P. Zhang.

 

Cytogenetic stocks. [p. 218]

New addition lines. Recently we reported on the development of a complete set of wheat-Ae. speltoides chromosome addition lines (Friebe et al. 2000). This set of addition lines is especially interesting because the S genome of Ae. speltoides is considered as the most closely related genome in the Sitopsis group to the B genome of T. aestivum. By crossing the addition lines with the appropriate B-genome monosomic stocks, we have produced six S(B) chromosome substitution lines. Once this set has been completed, these stocks will allow us to determine the sporophytic and gametophytic compensating ability of the S-genome chromosomes.

Previously, we reported that the short arm of the E. trachycaulus chromosome 1Ht has a gene that confers resistance to leaf rust. We have produced a compensating wheat-E. trachycaulus Robertsonian translocation (T1Ht·1BL), in which the short arm of 1Ht is translocated to the long arm of wheat chromosome 1B (Friebe et al. In press).

 

Genetics and genomic analysis. [p. 218-219]

Gc genes. Gametocidal (Gc) genes transferred from related Aegilops species into wheat cause chromosome breakage in the first postmeiotic interphase in gametophytes lacking them resulting in a preferential transmission of the Gc-carrier chromosome and semisterility. Gc genes may have played a significant role in karyotype evolution in the Triticum/Aegilops complex and were also used to produce a set of more than 400 deletion stock in wheat.

We have developed an efficient assay to identify knockout mutations at the Gc2 locus that was transferred to wheat from Ae. sharonensis and is present in the T4BS.4BL-4SshL 'cuckoo' translocation chromosome. We mutagenized 5,000 hemizygous Gc2/- seeds with EMS, and putative knockout mutations were identified by their restored spike fertility. Two Gc2 mutants were obtained, verified by transmission studies and progeny screening, which mapped the mutation to the Gc2-carrier chromosome. The data show that no chromosome breakage occurs in the mutants, leading to a Mendelian segregation of the Gc2-carrier chromosome and restored fertility. The data support the dual function model of Gc2 action, suggesting that this locus encodes for a 'breaking' and 'protecting' agent and that at least one of the two mutations is a knockout of the gene encoding for the 'breaking' agent (Friebe et al. 2003).

Rust resistance. We have cloned and were successful in transforming the leaf rust-resistance gene Lr21 (Huang et al. 2003). We can now use a molecular approach for breeding wheat for durable rust resistance. Located at the distal end of chromosome 1DS, Lr21 is located at a single locus. This gene is represented in Ae. tauschii by an allelic series. By examining the diversity of alleles, we hope to understand the response to selective pressure at the Lr21 locus. We have sequenced 4,875 bp of DNA from each of the diploid alleles of Lr21 to examine the entire coding regions, introns, and partial flanking sequences. A low level of polymorphism exists between resistant and susceptible alleles.

We searched for a new Lr21 allele in the WGRC germ plasm collection. Twelve additional accessions of Ae. tauschii were identified that have an Lr gene at the Lr21 locus. The geographical distribution of these Lr21 alleles mainly is restricted along the area adjacent to the Caspian Sea in Iran and Azerbaijan. These accessions were collected within an 800-km distance of each other. All 12 accessions have an identical Lr21 gene. In addition, the DNA sequences of the 442-bp region flaking the gene are identical.

We also studied the susceptible lr21 allele in 13 accessions of Ae. tauschii. Five of the 13 accessions were collected from the same collection sites as the Lr21-carrying accessions. Three were collected along the Caspian Sea within 51 km of the Lr21 accessions. The remaining five lines were collected in the places where no accessions with Lr21 are found. Variations among the accessions lacking the gene, using Lr21 as a standard, include 32 SNPs and 14 insertion or deletion polymorphism (Indels). About 44 % of the SNPs were detected in the LRR region, 22 % each in the N-terminal and 3'-nontranscripted regions (NTR), 9 % in the NBS region, and 3 % in the 5'-NTR. Large numbers of Indels were found among the accessions. Three of the Indels happened in either the nontranscript region (Indel 1) or an intron (Indel 4 and 5). All the remaining 11 Indels reside in the coding region, and eight of them may cause a frame shift, which results in a truncated protein.

The gene Lr21 is a young allele that originated from an old locus. The birthplace of the resistance allele Lr21 is in the area of Ramsar, Iran. All accessions collected from Ramsar have the same Lr21 gene. This data suggests that a high leaf rust pressure existed in that area. This pressure helped to eliminate the old, susceptible lr21 allele.

Identifying resistance gene analogs. Resistance-gene analogs (RGAs) have the potential to serve as closely lined markers for marker-assisted breeding or resistance-gene candidates. Eight new wheat RGAs and 26 kinase analogs (KAs) were isolated. Their clones detected fragments on all chromosomes except 4D (Maleki et al. 2003). Both simple and complex loci were identified indicating both single and multigene families. These RGAs and KAs will be useful as markers for mapping resistance gene loci in wheat.

Deletion stocks. We have characterized molecularly the core set of deletion stocks (Qi et al. 2003). One hundred fifty of the 159 deletion intervals or chromosome bins were tagged. Although most deletions were found to have a normal chromosome constitution, others may have arisen by translocation from unknown chromosomes. We discovered 35 new deletions in 26 of the lines. We also were able to detect aberrations in some genetic stocks. Any target gene can be allocated to a specific 28-Mb bin and associated ESTs and anchored to the other Triticeae and grass maps for molecular cloning by comparative and wheat-based positional cloning methods.

Altered gene expression in wheat. We are trying to understand how the three wheat genomes work within the nucleus by comparing gene expression in a synthetic hexaploid wheat with its diploid (Ae. tauschii) and tetraploid (T. turgidum) parents. We found that expression of a significant fraction of genes was diminished in the synthetic wheat but some were activated (He et al. 2003). Gene silencing appears to be caused by gene regulation and not due to chromosome or DNA loss.

Map-based cloning strategy in wheat. We have attempted the molecular cloning of three genes in wheat, Ms3, Q, and Lr21. Ms3 is located in the proximal 40 % of 5AS, Q is at 87 % of 5AL, and Lr21 is in the telomere, > 96 %, of 1DS. Ms3 is in a gene-poor region with highly suppressed recombination and, therefore, is not a good candidate for map-based cloning. The Q region is relatively gene-rich, high in recombination, and a candidate gene has been identified. The Lr21 region is highly gene-rich, extremely high in recombination, and the gene has been cloned and verified by transformation. What this means for wheat is that genes mapping in the proximal 50 % of the arms (especially the short arms) are not amenable to map-based cloning, those in the distal regions (> 0.5-0.90) can be cloned with difficulty, and those mapping in the telomeric regions (> 0.9) are easily accessible to map-based cloning.

Resistance to wheat curl mite. We have transferred resistance to the wheat curl mite from Ae. tauschii and rye to common wheat in the germ plasm line WGRC40. The rye-derived resistance gene is Cmc3 and is present on the wheat-rye translocation chromosome T1AL·1RS. We have used the marker SCM09 to select for wheat lines carrying the 1RS segment and Cmc3 (Malik et al. 2003). Two additional markers (GDM141 and KSUG8) flank the gene Cmc4 on chromosome 6DS. These markers will be of use in wheat-breeding programs to select for lines with either of the two wheat curl mite-resistance genes.

Chromosome engineering of the Wsm1 gene. Wsm1, specifying resistance to wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV), is derived from Agropyron intermedium, where the complete arm of a group-4 Ag. intermedium chromosome is translocated to the long arm of wheat chromosome 4D, T4Ag·4DL (Friebe et al. 1994). Wsm1 provides immunity against WSMV but negatively impacts yield. We have transferred the T4Ag·4DL translocation in a homozygous ph1b/ph1b background, where the 4AgS arm may pair and recombine with the homoeologous 4DS arm of wheat.

References.

• Friebe B, Jiang J, Knott DR, and Gill BS. 1994. Compensation indices of radiation-induced wheat-Agropyron elongatum translocations conferring resistance to leaf rust and stem rust. Crop Sci 34:400-404.
• Friebe B, Qi LL, Nasuda S, Zhang P, Tuleen NA, and Gill BS. 2000. Development of a complete set of Triticum aestivum-Aegilops speltoides chromosome addition lines. Theor Appl Genet 101:51-58.
• Friebe B, Zhang P, Nasuda S, and Gill BS. 2003. Characterization of a knock-out mutation at the Gc2 locus in wheat. Chromosoma 111:509-517.
• He P, Friebe BR, Gill BS, and Zhou J-M. 2003. Allopolyploidy alters gene expression in the highly stable hexaploid wheat. Plant Mol Biol 52:401-414.
• Huang L, Brooks SA, Fellers JP, and Gill BS. 2003. Map-based cloning of leaf rust resistance gene Lr21 from the large and polyploidy genome of bread wheat. Genetics 164(2):655-664.
• Malik R, Brown-Guedira GL, Smith CM, Harvey TL, and Gill BS. 2003. Genetic mapping of an Aegilops tauschii gene transferred to common wheat conferring resistance to all strains of wheat curl mite. Crop Sci 43:644-650
• Maleki L, Fellers JP, Faris JD, Bowden RL, and Gill BS. 2003. Physical and genetic mapping of wheat NBS-LRR and kinase class resistance gene analogs. Crop Sci 43:660-670.
• Qi L, Echalier B, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2003. Molecular characterization of a set of wheat deletion stocks for use in chromosome bin mapping of ESTs. Funct Integr Genomics 3:39-55.
  

Publications. [p. 220-221]

• Badaeva ED, Amosova AV, Samatadze TE, Zoshchuk SA, Shostak NG, Chikida NN, Zelenin AV, Raupp WJ, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2004. Genome differentiation in Aegilops. 4. Evolution of the U-genome cluster. Plant Syst Evol 246:45-76.
• Brooks SA, Huang L, Herbei M, Gill BS, Brown-Guedira GL, and Fellers JP. 2004. Structural evolution of a resistance gene island in the D genome of wheat. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, P444, p. 182.
• Brooks SA, See DR, Singh S, Gill BS, and Brown-Guedira GL. 2004. Site directed physical and genetic mapping of a major QTL for Karnal bunt disease in wheat. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, P455, p. 184.
• Gill BS, See DR, Brooks SA, and Brown-Guedira GL. 2004. Grasses as a single genetic system: rice walking into the wheat genome and mapping of evolutionary novelty. Rice Genome Forum XII, Tsukuba, Japan. Pp. 5-6.
• Li W and Gill BS. 2004. Genomics for cereal improvement. Review article (In press).
  Miftahuddin, Ross K, Ma X-F, Mahmoud A, Layton J, Rodriguez M, Chikmawali T, Ramalingam J, Feril O, Pathan MS, Surlan Momirovic G, Nguyen HT, Hossain KG, Kalavacharla V, Kianian SF, Lazo GR, Chao S, Anderson OD, Qi L, Gill BS, Linkiewicz AM, Dubcovsky J, Akhunov ED, Dvorak J, Dilbirigi M, Gill KS, Peng J, Lapitan NLV, Drake T, Sorrells ME, Gonzalez J, Wennerlind E, Anderson JA, Fenton D, Close TJ, McGuire PE, Qualset CO, and Gustafson JP. 2004. Physical bin map of EST on wheat homoeologous group 4 chromosomes. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, P405, p. 172.
• Narasimhamoorthy B, Fritz AK, Gill BS, and Brown-Guedira GL. 2004. Advanced backcross QTL analysis of a synthetic hexaploid by winter wheat population. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, P422, p. 176.
• Qi L and Gill BS. 2004. Molecular genetic and physical mapping of gene ms1D, a recessive genetic male sterile gene, in wheat. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, P441, p. 181.
• See DR, Brooks SA, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2004. Wheat-rice comparative genetics: beyond in silico and mapping of evolutionary novelty. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, W128, p. 37.
• See DR, Brooks SA, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2004. Fine scale physical and genetic mapping of in silico positioned wheat ESTs based upon rice synteny. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, P420, p. 176.
• See DR, Giroux M, and Gill BS. 2004. Effect of multiple copies of puroindoline genes on grain softness. Crop Sci 44:in press.
• Singh S, Franks CD, Huang L, Brown-Guedira GL, Marshall DS, Gill BS, and Fritz A. 2004. Lr41, Lr39, and a leaf rust resistance gene from Aegilops cylindrica may be allelic and are located on wheat chromosome 2DS. Theor Appl Genet 108:586-591.
• Shi J-R, Song Q, Singh S, Ward R, Creegan P, and Gill BS. 2004. Genetic and physical maps of microsatellite markers in wheat. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, P423, p. 176.
• Simons KJ, Fellers JP, Trick HN, Gill BS, and Faris JD. 2004. Molecular cloning of the Q locus in wheat. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, P155, p. 110.
• Smith CM, Havlicová H, Starkey S, Gill BS, and Holubec V. 2004. Identification of Aegilops germplasm with multiple aphid resistance. Euphytica 135:265-273.
• Soria MA, Khan IA, Anderson JA, Brown-Guedira GL, Campbell KG, Elias EM, Fritz AK, Gill BS, Gill KS, Haley S, Kianian SF, Kidwell K, Lapitan NLV, Ohm H, Sherman JD, Sorrells ME, Souza E, Talbert L, and Dubcovsky J. 2004. The MASwheat project: Bringing genomics to the wheat fields. In: Abstr Plant and Animal Genome XII, P216, p. 126.
• Sourdille P, Singh S, Cadalen T, Brown-Guedira GL, Gay G, Qi L, Gill BS, Dufour P, Murigneux A, and Bernard M. 2004. Microsatellite-based deletion bin system for the establishment of genetic-physical map relationships in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Funct Integr Genomics 4:12-25.
• Zhang P, Li W, Fellers J, Friebe B, and Gill BS. 2004. BAC-FISH in wheat identifies chromosome landmarks consisting of different types of transposable elements. Chromosoma 112:288-299.
  

 

U.S. GRAIN MARKETING AND PRODUCTION RESEARCH CENTER

USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Manhattan, KS 66502, USA.

O.K. Chung, G.L. Lookhart, F.E. Dowell, M. Tilley, S.R. Bean, L.M. Seitz, B.W. Seabourn, S.H. Park, J.L. Steele, M.E. Casada, M.S. Ram, E.B. Maghirang, M.C. Pasikatan, Y.S. Kim, D.B. Bechtel, J. Perez-Mendoza, F. Xie, R.K. Lyne, H. Singh, M.S. Caley, J.D. Wilson, D.L. Brabec, J.B. Ohm, J.E. Throne, J.E. Baker, T.C. Pearson, and Z.L. Haden.

 

Development of a micro-scale procedure to prepare wheat flour tortillas. [p. 221]

S. Arora, R. Lyne, J.N. Alviola, G.L. Lookhart, R.D. Waniska, and O.K. Chung.

Processing parameters for a microprocedure were established to produce wheat flour tortillas. Two laboratories were involved in optimizing a heated, hand-press (DP2000, Dough-Pro) and griddle parameters to produce tortillas comparable with those produced by pilot-scale Lawrence equipment. Press conditions of 55-105°C, 3-10 sec, and 5-12 kg, attached to the handle were evaluated. Griddle conditions of 150-250°C and 30-120 sec were evaluated. Tortillas were evaluated for opacity, diameter, thickness, shelf stability and textural properties. Fourteen flours were prepared into dough (42 g) and tortillas using both types of equipment. Good quality tortillas have large diameter, high opacity, and long shelf-stability. Processing parameters for the Dough-Pro and the griddle were established that yielded tortillas with properties similar to those made using pilot-scale equipment. Processing conditions of the Dough-Pro were 74°C, 7 sec, 12 kg, and 'thin' setting with the griddle at 160 +5°C for 80 sec. Under these conditions, tortilla diameter and opacity scores positively correlated to results from the Lawrence equipment. Similar trends were observed among the two laboratories. This microprocedure can be utilized when sample amount is limited, such as early-generation variety testing, and/or pilot-scale equipment is unavailable.

 

Comparison of different strip length for evaluating rheological properties of tortillas. [p. 221]

H. Singh, R.K. Lyne, O.K. Chung, P.A. Seib, and G.L. Lookhart.

Inherent variations during tortilla processing, and the product itself, have been major hurdles in objective measurements of rheological and textural properties. Tear and stress relaxation (SR) were measured using a texture analyzer (TAXT2 Plus) on the three-sized strips, including short, medium, and long (37, 60, and 75 mm, respectively) with 35-mm width. For the first set of experiments, six each of short, medium, and long strips were cut from the same tortilla, and it was replicated three times. For the 2nd set of experiments, 30 short, 20 medium, and 16 long strips were cut from each tortilla. In both sets of experiments, the maximum tear force decreased (approximately 32 %), the distance of rupture increased (approximately 74 %), and the area under the curve (absorbed energy) increased (58 %) by increasing strip length of 37 to 75 mm. The percent coefficient of variance (CV) values were 10 to 15 % by the strip length, 21 % for the area under the curve, and only 1 to 3 % for the %SR. The increase in %SR was from 52.88 and 52.70 to 66.81 and 67.26, respectively, for both sets of experiments, showing the consistency of the data within one tortilla and within a set of tortillas. However, %CV varied 10-27 % for the force required to stretch the tortilla to 1 mm during SR, likely due to the variation resulting from only one or two low data points from possible non-homogeneous weaker area of the tortillas. The conclusions were that (a) short (37-mm) strips were as reliable as medium (60-mm) or long (75-mm) strips for measuring rheological properties of tortillas; (b) they showed the same % changes, irrespective of the length of the length for both sets of experiments; and (c) the %SR values showed the smallest %CV values.

 

The staling of wheat flour tortillas studied by a texture analyzer and SE-HPLC. [p. 222]

H. Singh, R.K. Lyne, O.K. Chung, P.A. Seib, and G.L. Lookhart.

Staling has been a major cause of quality loss in tortillas but has been poorly understood at the molecular level. This research was a study of the changes involved in staling using a texture analyzer (TAXT2 Plus) and size-exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC). Tortillas were made in duplicate from wheat flour. The changes in stretchability and stress relaxation (SR) with storage time; 0, 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 days; were studied using tortilla extensibility tests. The average of values plotted against time for these parameters showed a linear relationship up to 4 days of storage then reached a plateau. When the stretchability was followed from day 0 to day 8, the max force increased from 6.5 to 12 N and the modulus of deformation from 1.5 to 9.99 N/mm. Stress relaxation, a determinant of viscoelastic behavior, decreased by ~10 % during 8 days of storage. Another batch of tortillas from the same processing day were freeze dried after similar storage times, ground, and sieved (150 m), and used to follow changes in extractable protein (in 1-propanol, 50 %) using SE-HPLC. The decrease in polymeric void volume peak in SE-HPLC chromatogram with increase in storage time suggested the involvement of protein during staling of tortillas.

 

Polyphenol oxidase activity in wheat grain kernels, meals, and flours in relation to noodle color. [p. 222]

O.K. Chung, S.H. Park, and P.A. Seib.

Many studies revealed that darkening of noodles is related to the PPO activity. The PPO activity of whole wheat, meal, and flour was studied in relation to alkaline noodle color (L*) after 24 hr. We tested 72 HRWW samples, including 46 from the Southern Central Plain (SCP) and 26 from the Wheat Quality Council (WQC) grown in 2002. Whole-kernel PPO was determined and milled wheat PPO by modifications of the method. The correlations (r, n = 72) between kernel and meal, kernel and flour, and meal and flour PPO levels were, respectively, 0.72, 0.48, and 0.47 (P < 0.0001). The PPO test reproducibility with meal had CV = 2.0 %, flour 9.8 %, and kernel 12.4 %. For the SCP set (n = 46), the PPO was negatively correlated with noodle color using kernels (r = -0.57), meal (r = -0.67), and flour (r = -0.34, P < 0.05), whereas the WQC set did not show significant correlations. Noodle color was correlated with flour protein content (r = -0.74) in the WQC set with a protein range of 10.4-14.7 %, but not in the SCP set with a protein range of 11.1-13.4 %.

 

Comparison of pup straight dough method with pound sponge and dough method and pup sponge and dough method. [p. 222]

M. S. Caley, O.K. Chung, S.H. Park, and Z.L. Haden.

Experimental test baking at Hard Winter Wheat Quality Lab of GMPRC has used the pup straight dough method (PSTD) since 1937 to investigate the potential of flour quality for white pan bread using early generation wheat progenies from breeders. This method may seem at odds with the commercial bread baking industry, which uses the pound sponge and dough method (PSD) as the bread baking method of choice. This study is to compare the baking results among PSTD, PSD, and pup sponge and dough method, and to find out if baking results from PSTD could be used for predicting baking results from other two methods. We used 47 flours (26 HRRW and 21 HRSW) from Wheat Quality Council grown in 2002. Significant correlations were observed in crumb grain score (r = 0.58, P < 0.0001) and loaf volume (r = 0.85) between PSTD and PSD. Predicting equation for loaf volume of PSD was obtained (R2 = 0.92) by stepwise multiple regression analysis using baking parameters of PSTD. Considering longer process and larger amount of flour required for PSD, PSTD is fast, simple, yet potent method. Pup sponge and dough method is under investigation.

 

Physical and chemical characterization of wheat flour milling coproducts. [p. 222-223]

Y.S. Kim, R.A. Flores, O.K. Chung, and D.B. Bechtel.

The first step in food product formulation and development is the characterization of the raw materials. This basic understanding of the properties of the raw materials permits improvement of the products and the development of new products. This study compared the properties of HRWW and HRSW milling coproducts such as bran, germ, shorts, and red dog. The properties studied included true and bulk density size, proximate analysis (protein, ash, lipid and fiber), and thermal properties (thermal conductivity and specific heat). All properties were determined for samples originating in different commercial and pilot plant mills. The results of this study update previous characterization studies and fill in the information gaps for wheat milling coproducts not previously available. Hard red winter and HRSW milling coproducts (bran, germ, shorts, and red dog) from three commercial flour mills and the Kansas State University pilot mill were evaluated for differences in physical, chemical, and thermal properties. The true and bulk densities of coproducts were significantly (p < 0.05) related to the moisture content (R2 of 0.913-0.999 and 0.817-0.999 for true and bulk densities, respectively). The red dog had the smallest geometrical mean diameter with the highest variation (coefficient of variation of 23.8 %). The average thickness of bran and germ particles measured with image analysis was significantly different (p < 0.05) among separation sizes, different wheats, and milling flows. Chemical compositions (protein, ash, fiber, and lipid) of coproducts in this study were within the range of published data. Thermal conductivity measured with the line source technique was significantly related to moisture content of the sample, with R2 ranging from 0.740 to 0.998. Specific heat of coproducts, measured with a differential scanning calorimeter exhibited a wider range (1.08 - 1.94 kJ/kgK) than that observed in whole wheat kernels and wheat flour. The variability observed among the samples was due to different sources of wheat and characteristic milling flows for the flour mills.

 

Application of NIR for rapid wheat quality analysis. [p. 223]

B.W. Seabourn and O.K. Chung.

Since the development of the first computerized NIR spectrometer by Ben-Gera and Norris (USDA) in 1968 for the measurement of moisture in meat products, NIR spectroscopy has seen unprecedented growth in its use, not only in agricultural products, but also in many different and widely varying scientific disciplines and commercial applications, due in large part to its unrivaled combination of simplicity, accuracy, and speed of analysis. Today, there are literally thousands of NIR spectrometers in use worldwide. NIR spectroscopy has become a widely used method in food analysis and the quality evaluation of agricultural products because it is a highly flexible, low-cost, intrinsically safe, rapid, and, in most cases, nondestructive technique in which very little, if any, sample preparation is required. NIR has the added advantages of multiconstituent analysis in which no by-products or hazardous materials are generated. Increased competition, expanding markets, development of new products, and issues of quality control, segregation, and safety are just a few of the demands facing the wheat industry around the world. The application of NIR spectroscopy to these issues and the evaluation of wheat quality are reviewed.

 

A method for monitoring the rheology and protein secondary structure of dough during mixing using FT-HATR spectroscopy. [p. 223]

B.W. Seabourn, O.K. Chung, P.A. Seib, and P.R. Mathewson.

An infrared spectroscopic method was developed to determine changes in the secondary structure of gluten proteins in a flour-water dough system as it was mixed. FT-HATR mid-infrared spectra of mixed doughs revealed changes in four bands in the amide III region typically associated with secondary structure of proteins: 1,317 (a-helix), 1,285 (b-turn), 1,265 (random coil), and 1,242 cm-1 (b-sheet). The largest band, which also showed the greatest change in second derivative band area (SDBA) during mixing (increasing over time), was the band at 1,242/cm. The bands at 1,317, 1,285, and 1,242/cm also showed an increase in SDBA over time. Alternatively, the band at 1265/cm showed a corresponding decrease during mixing. All bands reached an optimal (or minimal) corresponding to the optimum development of the dough. Increases in a-helical, b-turn, and b-sheet structures during mixing suggest that the secondary structure of gluten protein assumes a more ordered conformation, apparently at the expense of random coil structure in the macromolecule. These results demonstrate that it is possible to follow the rheological behavior of dough based on changes in the protein structure of the system.

 

Spelt quality and starch chemistry. [p. 224]

J.D. Wilson, D.B. Bechtel, and P.A. Seib.

Spelt is an old-world hexaploid, hulled wheat that has recently received renewed interest in the USA. There have been few reports on test baking of spelt wheat flour into bread nor of its starch properties. Five spelt wheats were micro-milled into flour (~70 % extraction) and test baked. Quality factors such as; proteins (8.7-12.7 %), bake mix time (2.25-11 min), crumb score (0.5-4.75) and loaf volume of 10-g bakes (42-77°C) were measured. Starch was isolated by protease digestion from flour and evaluated for total starch (75-82 %), starch damage (2.3-3.2 %), and amylase content (30-33 %). Thermal properties of isolated starch were conducted by differential scanning calorimetry to obtain gelatinization profiles (To = 53-58°C; TP = 63-66°C; TC = 70-73°C; DH = 8-13 J/g) as well as disassociation of amylase/lipid complexes (To = 85-89°C; TP = 97-100°C; TC = 102-106°C; DH = 1.3-1.7 J/g). Isolated starch showed unique differences compared to HRWW with respect to the initial peak (192-229 RVA) and final viscosity (161-297 RVA) using the Rapid Visco Analyzer. This study revealed spelt starch to have lower starch damage and higher amylase content than the hard red winter wheat control.

 

Effect of temperature on expression of genes encoding enzymes for starch biosynthesis in developing wheat endosperm. [p. 224]

W.J. Hurkman, K.F. McCue, S.B. Altenbach, A.M. Korn, C.K. Tanaka, K.M. Kothari, D.B. Bechtel, J.D. Wilson, O.D. Anderson, and F.M. Dupont.

High temperature during grain-fill reduces yield in wheat. The reduction in yield is caused by a decrease in total starch content of the grain. We studied the effect of high temperature on starch accumulation, the relative number and volume of starch grains, and the expression of key genes for the starch biosynthetic pathway were examined during grain development. Maximum starch weight was attained earlier in grain of plants grown under high temperatures and total starch weight was much less in the mature grain. High temperatures also changed the relative number and volume of the three different starch granule size classes found in the grain. Messenger RNA levels for starch biosynthetic enzymes peaked early in development and decreased substantially, especially the messenger RNA for soluble starch synthase. These findings demonstrate that high temperatures influence not only starch synthesis, but also the overall developmental program for grain development. The effect of high temperature on starch accumulation, starch granule populations, and expression of genes encoding key enzymes for starch biosynthesis was examined during grain development in wheat cultivar Butte 86. High temperature applied from anthesis to maturity reduced the duration of starch accumulation. Starch accumulation ceased ~ 6 days earlier for grain produced under a 37/17°C (day/night) regimen and 21 days earlier under a 37/28 C (day/night) regimen than for grain produced under a 24/17 C (day/night) regimen. Compared to the 24/17 C regimen, starch content was ~ 19 % less for mature grain produced under the 37/17 C regimen and 58 % less under the 37/28 C regimen. The smaller type-B starch granules were the predominant class in mature grain produced under the 24/17 C and 37/17 C regimens, based on relative volume, whereas the larger type-A granules were predominant in grain produced under the 37/28 C regimen. Under the 24/17· C regimen, steady state transcript levels for ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, starch synthases I, II, and III, granule-bound starch synthase, and starch branching enzymes I and II were highest from 12-16 days post-anthesis. Under the 37/17 C regimen, steady state levels of these transcripts followed the same temporal pattern, but were substantially lower. Under the 37/28 C regimen, transcript levels peaked earlier, at 7 days post-anthesis. The high temperature regimens reduced the relative levels of transcripts for starch synthase more than the other starch biosynthetic enzymes.

 

HPLC of gluten monomeric proteins. [p. 224-225]

G.L Lookhart, S.R. Bean, and J.A. Bietz.

High performance liquid chromatography is an analytical method that uses a liquid pumping system to accurately deliver solvents through a column or columns each packed with particles of a specific size (1.5-10 m) and with specific bonded phases. The end result is the ability to separate complex mixtures in minutes. HPLC is a superb tool as it is complementary and often superior to previous methods for characterization of complex cereal proteins. Reversed-phase and ion-exchange HPLC separations of gluten monomers and the hundreds of reports that describe such studies were summarized with references to more comprehensive reviews and provides protocols for these separations.

 

Reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography in grain applications. [p. 225]

G.L. Lookhart, S.R. Bean, and J.A. Bietz.

High-performance liquid chromatography uses a liquid pumping system to accurately deliver solvents through a column packed with 1.5-10-µm particles with specific bonded phases. The end result is the ability to separate complex mixtures in minutes. We have focused on the separation of gluten monomers using reversed-phase HPLC (RP-HPLC). RP-HPLC is a method often used for gluten protein analysis, its resolution equals or exceeds that of most other methods, and it is fast, reproducible, sensitive, quantifiable, and gives good recovery. Most importantly, however, it complements other methods, since it fractionates proteins on the basis of different surface hydrophobicities.

 

Wheat varietal identification and wheat quality. [p. 225]

G.L. Lookhart and S.R. Bean.

The ability to identify wheat at all stages of its growth and use is very important. Quality is in the eye of the beholder! A farmer might define quality as the amount of grain produced in the field, a miller might define it as the amount of flour that can be produced from a bushel of wheat on a given mill, a baker might define it as the type of consistent product that can be made from a given flour, and a breeder might define it as the overall resistance to disease, the grain yield, and the utilization of the grain by various end users. In each of these definitions, genetic, environmental, and 'genetic x environmental' components are present. Because we cannot control the environment, controlling or identifying the genetics is important. Wheat gliadins are a genotypic expression of the plant and, therefore, characterization of the gliadins can be used to fingerprint wheat genotypes. Cultivar identification can be accomplished in any of three broad ways: agronomic, physical, or biochemical. We have described and compared each of these areas and focused on the biochemical methods of electrophoresis and chromatography to characterize or fingerprint wheat proteins for varietal identification.

 

Wheat flour proteins as affected by transglutaminase and glucose oxidase. [p. 225]

C.M. Rosell, J. Wang, S. Aja, S.R. Bean, and G.L. Lookhart.

Enzymes are good tools to modify wheat proteins by creating new bonds between the protein chains. We studied the effect of the addition of glucose oxidase and transglutaminase on the wheat flour proteins. The modification of wheat proteins was determined by analyzing the changes in gluten quality, alveograph parameters, and protein modifications. The amount of wet gluten increased with the addition of glucose oxidase and transglutaminase, but the gluten quality was not improved in any case. Regarding the alveograph parameters, the effect of glucose oxidase was readily evident obtaining wheat dough with higher tenacity and lower extensibility than the control, whereas transglutaminase led to doughs with lower tenacity and that were also less extensible. The protein modifications were characterized by free-zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE). FZCE data indicated that transglutaminase polymerizes mainly glutenins and, of those, the high molecular weight glutenin subunits were the most affected.

 

Methods for analyzing polymeric proteins of wheat their impact on wheat quality. [p. 225-226]

S.R. Bean and G.L. Lookhart.

The polymeric proteins of wheat have been found correlated to wheat quality attributes such as mixing strength. Improved methods for characterizing these proteins were developed and applied to the study of wheat quality. A rapid method for measuring the amount of insoluble polymeric protein was developed based on short, multiple extractions with 50 % 1-propanol followed by nitrogen combustion analysis. Good correlations between dough strength parameters and amounts of pellet protein and percent pellet protein (pellet protein/flour protein) were found for all samples. This procedure was found to be simple and rapid, with the potential of analyzing over 100 samples/day with good reproducibility. In addition, a method was developed to measure the actual size distribution of the polymeric proteins. This method used multi-angle laser light scattering (MALLS) in conjunction with size exclusion chromatography (SEC). Four solvent systems for analyzing wheat gluten proteins by MALLS were evaluated for use in extraction and as SEC mobile phases. The dn/dc values for wheat proteins were measured in each solvent. Although all solvents showed similar resolution when used as mobile phases in SEC analysis, the SDS solvent extracted the most protein (~ 82 %) in the unreduced form. This solvent system also displayed no concentration dependent or electrostatic effects during MALLS analysis. The SDS-soluble and -insoluble protein complexes were characterized by MALLS and Mw distributions ranging up to 8.1 x 106 Da were found for the insoluble SDS-protein complexes. The effect of the column void volume was also examined as was data analysis parameters such as fitting method and peak placement. This method could be used to measure the size distribution of polymeric proteins in wheats differing in quality.

 

Glutenin particles are affected by growing conditions. [p. 226]

C. Don, G.L. Lookhart, H.A. Naeem, F. MacRitchie, and R.J. Hamer.

Wheat quality is governed by both genetic and environmental factors. The glutenin macro-polymer particle gel (GMP), is recognized as a key to better understand flour quality. The formation of glutenin particles and how they are affected by growing conditions was studied. The NILs Lance C (5+10) + Lance A (2+12) and Warigal A (5+10) + Warigal B (2+12) were used. The wheat lines were grown under controlled conditions, using various temperature regimes to simulate stress effects. GMP quantity in the flours varied with heat treatments, suggesting a link between total GMP quantity and stress. Typical GMP particle size distributions (PSD) for the flours in ~10-200 µm range could be observed with Coulter Laser. Wheat stressed 40 C day/25 C night for 16 days after anthesis had a much lower quantity of GMP. However, we still observed a narrow PSD-peak indicating that large size GMP particles are still present in heat stressed samples. When wheat was heat-stressed at a later stage, 40/25 C - 25 days after anthesis, more GMP was recoverable and glutenin PSD was broader. Lines with 5+10 contained larger particles than those with 2+12. More interesting findings on GMP and PSD are GMP, genetics, heat-stress, protein composition, and flour quality.

 

Separation of water soluble proteins from cereals by high performance capillary electrophoresis. [p. 226]

M. Tilley and S.R. Bean.

Most research concerning grain proteins has concentrated upon the gluten storage proteins. The albumins and globulins are the water- and salt-soluble proteins that contain biologically active enzymes and enzyme inhibitors. A free zone capillary electrophoresis method was developed to separate these proteins. Optimization included sample extraction method, capillary temperature, buffer composition, and additives. The optimal conditions for separation of these proteins was found to be 50 um i.d. x 27 cm (20 cm to detector) capillary at 10 kV (with a 0.17 min ramp up time) and 25 C. The optimum buffer was 50 mM sodium phosphate, pH 2.5 + 20 % acetonitrile (v/v) (ACN) + 0.05 % (w/v) hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose (HPMC) + 50 mM hexane sulfonic acid (HSA). Sample stability was an issue that was addressed by lyophilizing fresh extracts and redissolving in aqueous 50 % ethylene glycol and 10 % separation buffer. This method was successfully used in both wheat flour and whole meal samples. Comparisons were made of several wheats of different classes as well as several cereal grains. This methodology could be useful in screening cereal grains for important enzymes and their impact on end-use quality such as food functionality, food coloration, and malting quality.

 

Tyrosine crosslink formation in wheat dough: innate enzymatic activity. [p. 226-227]

M. Tilley and K.A. Tilley.

Formation of the 3-dimensional protein network known as gluten during dough mixing and bread making processes is extremely complex. Evidence presented here indicates that tyrosine bonded species form in wheat doughs during the processes of mixing and baking and are major contributors to the structure of the gluten network. Various oxidizing and reducing agents that have been used in the baking industry directly affect tyrosine bonds. Tyrosine bonds between synthetic glutenin peptides form in vitro under baking conditions in the presence of potassium bromate and in the presence of water-soluble extract of flour. Bond structures and formation during bread-making processes have been documented by HPLC, NMR, and mass spectroscopic analyses. The formation of tyrosine crosslinks in developing wheat kernels also has been documented, shedding light on the biological mechanisms for tyrosine crosslink formation. Innate enzymes in the endosperm (flour) of wheat kernels have been isolated and characterized. Information regarding these enzymes and their ability to form dityrosine during bread-making processes will be described. These enzymes and their functions provide necessary points of control during bread-making processes.

 

Wheat protein subclasses in relation to characteristics of experimental pup-loaf breads [p. 227]

S.H. Park, O.K. Chung, P.A. Seib, and S.R. Bean.

Flour proteins were extracted from 49 hard winter wheat flours with 50 % 1-propanol. The soluble proteins (SP) were separated into albumin/globulin (AG), gliadins, and soluble polymeric protein (SPP) fractions using SEC-HPLC. Insoluble polymeric proteins (IPP) were determined by nitrogen combustion using a LECO FP-428 nitrogen determinator. Flour protein content (FPC) was highly correlated to loaf volume (LV, r = 0.82, p < 0.0001) and dough proof height (DPH, r = 0.74, p < 0.0001); SP amount was highly correlated to FPC and LV as well (r = 0.85 and r = 0.74, respectively) as was gliadin (r = 0.73 and r = 0.71, respectively). IPP amount was correlated to bake water absorption (BWA, r = 0.62, p < 0.0001) as well as FPC (r = 0.45, p < 0.005). Bake mix time (BMT) was not correlated to FPC, due to the opposite effects shown by IPP and SP, i.e., BMT was positively correlated with IPP (r = 0.86) but negatively correlated with SP (r = -0.75) and gliadins (r = -0.43). Bread crumb grain scores (CGS) were correlated positively with SP and gliadin amounts (r = 0.35 and 0.30, respectively, p < 0.05) but negatively with AG % protein (r = -0.40) and AG/SP ratio (r = -0.41). Thus, SP amount and gliadins affected LV, DPH, and CGS positively but BMT negatively, whereas IPP affected BWA and BMT positively. The percent protein of AG and IPP had negative correlations with LV and DPH.

 

Free tryptophan in wheat grain and milling fractions. [p. 227]

L.M. Seitz, and M.S. Ram.

Relatively little information is available on free amino acids in whole wheat or milling fractions. In this research, we focused on the essential amino acid tryptophan, which we found could be readily extracted with methanol from ground whole wheat and wheat milling fractions. Extracts were analyzed by HPLC using UV-Vis and fluorescence detectors. Retention time and spectra (UV-Vis and fluorescence) of the component from samples were equivalent to those from a tryptophan standard. Derivatization with danzyl chloride and ninhydrin also aided identification. From analysis of methanol extracts of ground wheat, tryptophan concentrations were about 12 and 35 µg/gram for cultivars Scout 66 and Trego, respectively, grown near Bushland, TX, in 2002. Germination of these cultivars for about 3 days increased the tryptophan concentration slightly. With milling fractions, free tryptophan was present in bran and shorts at levels about 10 times higher than in flour. Analyses for free tryptophan in selected cultivars from known locations could provide information on factors such as type of wheat and environment during grain maturation that may influence the level of this important amino acid in wheat grain.

 

Natural fluorescence of red and white wheat kernels. [p. 227-228]

M.S. Ram, L. Seitz, and F.E. Dowell.

For marketing purposes, red and white wheat need to be kept segregated because mixtures of these wheats are discounted, and some have different end uses. Identification of wheat color class is not straightforward, and currently, characterizing red and white wheat using spectroscopy and chemical tests is of great interest. During preliminary observations, we noticed that all varieties of red and white wheat exhibited natural fluorescence under UV light in a viewing cabinet, and there appeared to be some differences between red and white wheats. From a study of 90 cultivars (41 red and 49 white), we found that fluorescence emission spectra of red wheat kernels are different from those of white wheats, as indicated by partial least-squares and neural networks analysis. This information may aid development of a simple, rapid wheat color class identification process easily without the use of chemicals. Only a relatively inexpensive spectrofluorometer would be required, and the test may be extendable to single kernels.

 

Improving wheat quality. [p. 228]

O.K. Chung, S.H. Park, M. Tilley, and G.L. Lookhart.

This is a chapter of a book "Breadmaking: Improving Quality" edited by SP Cauvaine, published by the Woodhead Publishing Company.

On average, for three recent years (1998-99 through 2000-01), the U.S. produced 64.2 x 106 metric tons (mmt) of wheat representing about 11 % of the world production. Wheat is the most valuable food crop and the major export crop of the U.S., as 43 % (28.8 mmt) enters the export market. The U.S. produces several classes of wheat which have different functional properties and end-uses. The major bread wheat classes, HRWW and HRSW, comprise 63-65 % of total U.S. wheat production and 62-63 % of U.S. wheat exports. Official U.S. Standards for Wheat and established and maintained by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Wheat quality improvement begins with breeding. Important traits targeted in wheat breeding include both agronomic and end-use qualities. The USDA, Agricultural Research Service maintains four Regional Wheat Quality Laboratories that have made paramount contributions to U.S. wheat improvement for all wheat classes. Quality evaluation in the U.S. bread wheat-breeding program was once limited to traditional milling and bread-baking tests and is now rapidly expanding to include a wider range of tests for multiple end-use products. Tremendous growth exists in nontraditional uses, such as Asian products, noodles, frozen dough, par-bake products, tortillas, and pizza crust. To take full advantage of these expanding markets, new quality parameters and quality prediction tests are being developed for breeding programs and commercial wheat cultivars. Quality evaluation is a valuable approach in retaining a competitive edge in world markets while addressing new demands of domestic customers.

 

Functional properties of waxy wheat flours: Genotypic and environmental effects. [p. 228-229]

R.A. Graybosch, E. Souza, W. Berzonsky, P.S. Baenziger, and O.K. Chung.

Alternative uses of our most common grain crops often is cited as a necessity for the development of a more sustainable agricultural system, and a means of salvation for rural economies. After many years of discussion, a well-defined alternative use of common wheat now is in sight. Waxy (amylose-free) wheats have a modified starch structure that will allow wheat starch to be used in a number of novel food and industrial applications. Waxy spring wheats were developed via traditional crossbreeding of lines carrying natural mutations that interrupt the synthesis of amylose, a natural component of wheat starch. The resultant starch consists only of amylopectin, another natural component. Waxy wheats, then, are 100 % natural and nonGMO. The change in starch structure conferred different cooking properties to the waxy wheats. The cooking properties were remarkably stable over diverse cultural environments. Grain yield of the highest yielding spring waxy wheats was not significantly different from that of normal spring wheat cultivars included as controls. The study demonstrates that waxy wheats can be developed that will not carry a penalty in grain yield, that waxy wheats have unique functional properties, and that these functional properties are extremely resistant to modification by environmental factors. Commercial firms interested in using waxy wheats will be able to obtain consistent raw materials from diverse environments. A set of waxy (amylose-free) experimental spring wheats of diverse parentage were grown, along with two nonwaxy and two partial waxy check cultivars, at diverse North American cultural environments. Grain yield and functional attributes of derived flours were determined. Average grain yield of the waxy lines did not differ significantly from the average yield of the check cultivars, but significant differences were observed amongst the waxy lines. Grain hardness varied significantly among the waxy lines, and both hard and soft textured waxy lines were identified. Analysis of flour quality traits showed few differences between waxy lines and check cultivars for traits primarily related to protein concentration or protein quality, but many significant differences between properties primarily dependent upon starch structure, or related to milling behavior. Protein-related quality attributes of waxy wheats demonstrated environmental and genotypic variances similar to those typical of nonwaxy wheats. Starch-related quality attributes of waxy wheats showed remarkable stability across environments, but some significant genetic variation was observed. End-users interested in employing waxy wheats should be able to select desired waxy lines, and feel confident that the starch-related functional properties will be environmentally stable.

 

Genetic, agronomic, and quality comparisons of two T1Al·1RS wheat-rye translocations. [p. 229]

R.A. Graybosch, J.H. Lee, C.J. Peterson, D.R. Porter, and O.K. Chung.

The T1AL·1RS wheat-rye translocation originally found in Amigo wheat possesses resistance genes for stem rust, powdery mildew, and greenbug biotypes B and C, also has a negative effect on wheat processing quality. Recently, a second T1AL·1RS translocation with Gb6, a gene conferring resistance to greenbug biotypes B, C, E, G, and I, was identified in the wheat germ plasm line GRS1201. Protein analytical methods and PCR were used to identify markers capable of differentiating the 1RS chromosome arms derived from Amigo and GRS1201. The secalin proteins encoded by genes on 1RS chromosome arms differed in Amigo and GRS1201. A secalin of Mr 70 kD was found in the Amigo T1AL·1RS but did not occur in the GRS1201 T1AL·1RS. Polymorphisms detected by PCR primers derived from a family of moderately repetitive rye DNA sequences also differentiated the two translocations. When GRS1201 was mated with a non1RS wheat, no recombinants between 1RS markers were observed. Recombination between 1RS markers did occur when 1RS from Amigo and 1RS from GRS1201 were combined, but in such intermatings, the molecular markers described herein could still be used to develop a population enriched in lines carrying Gb6. No differences in grain yield or grain and flour quality characteristics were observed when lines carrying 1RS from Amigo were compared to lines with 1RS from GRS1201. Hence, differences in secalin composition did not result in differential quality effects. When compared to sister lines with T1AL·1AS derived from the wheat cultivar Redland, lines with GRS1201 had equal grain yield but produced flours with significantly shorter mix times, weaker doughs, and lower SDS sedimentation volumes.

 

Release of N95l11881 and 95l9521 strong gluten T1BL·1RS wheats. [p. 229]

R.A. Graybosch, C.J. Peterson, and O.K. Chung.

N95L11881 (PI 617064) and 97L9521 (PI 617066) HRWW were released by the Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, and the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, in June, 2002. These lines carry the T1BL·1RS wheat-rye chromosomal translocation inherited from the HRWW Siouxland, but they possess improved gluten strength relative to this parent. The T1BL·1RS translocation in Siouxland originally was derived from the Russian wheat Kavkaz. Although this translocation confers a number of advantageous traits, including resistance to several fungal diseases and improved grain yield and grain yield stability, it has a detrimental effect on the processing quality of hard winter wheats. The most noticeable effect, a lack of dough strength, is overcome in these two germ plasm lines.

 

Registration of N96L9970 Greenbug resistant wheat. [p. 229]

R.A. Graybosch, C.J. Peterson, D.R. Porter, and O.K. Chung.

N96L9970 is a HRWW germ plasm line developed coöperatively by the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, and the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, and was released in June, 2002. N96L9970 carries resistance to multiple biotypes of greenbug. N96L9970 (PI 619231, GRS1201/TAM-202) is resistant to greenbug biotypes B, C, E, G, I, and K. GRS1201 carries a T1AL·1RS wheat-rye chromosomal translocation originally produced from an irradiated alien chromosome substitution plant derived from a wheat/rye hybrid (short wheat selection/Scout (TX69A345-2)//Insave rye/3/TAM101). TAM-202 (described as an outcross between an unknown parent and Siouxland) has a different T1AL·1RS translocation. The greenbug resistance of N96L9970 is located on the T1AL·1RS translocation inherited from GRS1201. N96L9970 primarily was released due to significant agronomic performance relative to GRS1201, the only previously released source of resistance to greenbug biotypes B, C, E, G, I, and K.

 

Release of nineteen waxy spring wheats. [p. 230]

R.A. Graybosch, E. Souza, W. Berzonsky, P.S. Baenziger, D.V. McVey, and O.K. Chung.

Nineteen spring waxy (amylose-free) wheat germ plasm lines were developed and released by the Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, and the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station in coöperation with the Agricultural Experiment Stations of North Dakota and Idaho. Waxy wheats carry three nonfunctional (null) alleles (Wx-A1b, Wx-B1b, and Wx-D1b) at the genetic loci encoding the enzyme granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS, EC 2.4.1.21) GBSS also is known as the waxy protein. Waxy wheats produce endosperm starch that is nearly devoid of amylose. Such starch confers unique functional properties to derived wheat flour. Suggested uses for waxy wheats include the production of modified food starches, a blending agent to create flours with optimal amylose concentration for the production of a variety of sheeted and baked food products, and as an animal feed. Waxy wheats also are useful as donors of the Wx null alleles, which may be used to develop partial waxy or reduced-amylose wheats. The presence of one or two such alleles can result in wheat flours with superior performance in certain food applications.

 

Registration of Ankor wheat. [p. 230]

S.D. Haley, J.S. Quick, J.J. Johnson, F.B. Peairs, J.A. Stromberger, S.R. Clayshulte, B.L. Clifford, J.B. Rudolph, O.K. Chung, and B.W. Seabourn.

Ankor HRWW was developed by the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station and released to seed producers in August 2002. Ankor was released because of its resistance to the RWA and adaptation for dryland production in eastern Colorado and the west central Great Plains. Ankor was selected from the crosses and backcrosses 'Akron/Halt//4*Akron' made between 1994 and 1998. Halt (PI 584505) and Akron (PI 584504) are cultivars released by Colorado State University in 1994. Ankor is resistant to stem rust, susceptible to leaf rust, and susceptible to both WSMV and BYDV and Hessian fly and greenbug, and resistant to RWA. Ankor was tested in 11 trial locations of the dryland Colorado during from 2001 to 2002 (2,647 kg/ha) and had a similar yield as Prairie Red (2,620 kg/ha; P > 0.05) and less than Akron (2,714 kg/ha; P > 0.05). Relative to its recurrent parent Akron, Ankor had higher grain volume weight (727 versus 721 kg/m^3^), kernel weight (24.8 versus 23.6 mg/kernel), and percent large kernels (36.3 versus 27.5 % kernels that do not pass a Tyler #7 sieve, 2.92 mm openings). Flour protein and ash contents, dough mixing properties, flour, and bread-making properties were similar to those for Ankor and Akron. The Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station will maintain breeder seed of Ankor. Ankor has been submitted for U.S. Plant Variety Protection under P.L. 91-577 with the certification option. Ankor was developed with financial support from Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station Projects 795 and 646, the Colorado Wheat Administrative Committee, and the Colorado Wheat Research Foundation.

 

Using visible and near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry to study starch, protein, and temperature effects on bread staling. [p. 230-231]

F. Xie, F.E. Dowell, and X.S. Sun.

Bread staling is a complex process that occurs during bread storage and is a progressive deterioration of quality such as taste, and firmness. The mechanism of bread staling is still not clear yet, even though it has been studied for 150 years. Starch, protein, and temperature effects on bread staling were investigated using visible and NIR spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. The potential of NIR spectroscopy in studying bread staling was investigated. The results show that starch, protein, and moisture all contributed to the bread staling process. Bread staling mainly was due to amylopectin retrogradation; amylopectin reformed into double helical structure and recrystallized. The amylose-lipid complex changed little one day after baking. Low temperature dramatically accelerated the amylopectin retrogradation process. Protein retarded bread staling but not as much as temperature. The starch and protein interaction was less important than the starch retrogradation. Protein hindered the bread staling process mainly by diluting starch and retarding starch retrogradation. NIR spectroscopy measured amylopectin retrogradation accurately in different batches. NIRS followed moisture and starch structure changes when measuring retrograded amylopectin. Five important wavelengths, 550, 970, 1,155, 1,395, and 1,465 nm, indicates that NIR spectroscopy could provides information on starch, protein, moisture, and color. The results of this study could lead to solutions of reducing bread staling that will bring great economic benefit to both of bakers and consumers in the future. In addition, the results will be helpful in developing NIR spectroscopy applications further as a means for studying bread staling or other similar phenomenon.

 

Comparison of near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy and a texture analyzer for predicting wheat bread staling. [p. 231]

F. Xie, F.E. Dowell, and X. Sun.

Bread staling affects bread texture properties and is one of the most common problems in bread storage. Bread firmness, as measured in compression mode by a texture analyzer (TA), has been commonly used to measure bread staling. This study investigated the potential of visible and NIR spectroscopy to detect bread changes during storage by comparing NIR spectroscopy results with those obtained by the TA. Twenty-five loaves of commercial wheat white pan bread from one batch were studied over 5 days. NIR spectroscopy and TA measurements were made on the same slice at approximately the same time. The experiment was repeated five times using the same kind of commercial samples from five different batches. NIR spectroscopy measurements of slices, loaf averages, and daily averages were compared with TA measurements. NIR spectroscopy spectra had high correlation with TA firmness. NIR spectroscopy measurements correlated better with the actual storage time and had smaller standard deviations than the TA measurements. The batch differences had less effect on NIR spectroscopy measurements than on the TA measurements. The results indicate that NIR spectroscopy could follow bread changes during storage more accurately than TA. NIR spectroscopy is probably based on both physical and chemical changes during bread staling, unlike the TA method that only measures bread firmness, which is only one aspect of the staling phenomenon.

 

Measuring wheat hardness by single-kernel visible and near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. [p. 231]

E.B. Maghirang and F.E. Dowell.

Wheat hardness is a primary quality trait that relates wheat to its milling properties and end-use quality. The current standard measurement techniques for wheat hardness are destructive, i.e., they require grinding or crushing of wheat samples. A measurement technique, such as in breeding programs, that is nondestructive, rapid, accurate, and that requires small sample sizes is needed. A commercially available single-kernel, visible and NIR reflectance (VisNIR) spectrometer (Single Kernel Characterization System 4170) was used to develop a bulk-hardness measurement and wheat-classification technique. This technique requires only 30 whole single kernels, which can be automatically and nondestructively processed using VisNIR, for a total run time of only 30 seconds. This technique predicted hardness values with 83 % accuracy and correctly classified wheat as soft, hard, or mixed wheat with 100 % accuracy. The potential of using VisNIR may be attributed to the apparent capability of this technique to distinguish between the strength of adhesion between starch and protein, which varies across hard and soft wheats and also may be possibly related to the extent of the level of relationship between hardness and vitreousness. VisNIR using whole kernels has already proven effective for measuring numerous grain attributes such as protein, moisture content, vitreousness, color class, internal insects, and bunt. VisNIR instruments being used to measure these attributes can be used for grain hardness measurement and hardness classification. As such, this may reduce the number of instruments and/or steps required for evaluating grain attributes. The demand for instruments that can measure multiple attributes that are essential for determining end-use quality will increase, especially true with the shift in the wheat industry to being an end-use oriented market. Likewise, wheat breeding programs are expected to benefit from this technique considering its nondestructive feature, small sample size requirement, accuracy, and rapidity.

 

Granulation sensing of first-break ground wheat using a near-infrared reflectance spectrometer. [p. 231-232]

M.C. Pasikatan, E. Haque, C.K. Spillman, J.L. Steele, and G.A. Milliken.

Currently, we have very little automation in wheat mills. If the roll gap setting was automated, then the efficiency of the mills can possibly be improved. A NIR reflectance spectrometer was evaluated as a potential granulation sensor because of the known relationship of NIR reflectance to the particle size of ground products. Six wheat classes were ground using five roll gaps of a first-break roller mill. Good correlations were achieved between the larger granulation sizes and NIR reflectance. The granulation sensing technique based on NIR reflectance is ready for online evaluation.

 

Granulation sensing of first-break ground wheat using a near-infrared reflectance spectrometer: studies with soft red winter wheats. [p. 232]

M.C. Pasikatan, E. Haque, C.K. Spillman, J.L. Steele, and G.A. Milliken.

A sensor for granulation could change roll gap settings automatically to follow changes in granulation of ground wheat, unlike the operator-fixed setting of present roller mills. A fully automated roller mill could help optimize flour extraction in flour-milling systems. Previously, we studied the feasibility of developing a granulation sensor out of a NIR reflectance spectrometer, using ground wheat from six wheat classes and HRWWs. This time, we studied ground wheat from SRWW. Two sets of 35 wheat samples, representing seven SRWW cultivars, were ground independently using five roller mill gaps (0.38, 0.51, 0.63, 0.75, and 0.88 mm). NIR reflectance of one set was used to develop calibration to estimate granulation from spectral data of the other set. Granulation models based on partial least squares regression were developed with cumulative mass of size fractions as reference value. Different ways of treating the spectral data (log (1/R), baseline correction, unit area normalization, and derivatives) and subregions of the 400-1,700 nm wavelength range were evaluated. Models that corrected for path length effects (those that used unit area normalization) predicted the bigger size fractions well. The model based on unit area normalization-first derivative predicted 34 out of 35 validation spectra with square root of the sum of squared differences between reference and predicted data of 3.53, 1.83, 1.43, and 1.30 for the >1,041, >375, >240, and >136 mm size fractions, respectively. The SRWW granulation models performed better than the previously reported models for six wheat classes owing to less variation in mass of each size fraction. However, SRWW flour has tendency to stick to the underside of sieves that affected the reference values. Thus the finest size fraction of these models did not perform as well as the HRWW models.

 

High-speed segregation of high- and low-protein single wheat seeds. [p. 232]

M.C. Pasikatan and F.E. Dowell.

High protein content is preferred in wheat products such as pasta while low protein content is desirable for cakes and cookies. Wheat with higher protein commands higher price (about 5 cents more per bushel) in export markets. A specific protein content range is one of the goals of wheat breeding programs but breeders, currently, do not have a nondestructive method to rapidly screen single wheat kernels for protein content. We evaluated the potential of a commercial high-volume color sorter for this purpose. The sorter was equipped with NIR optical filters and sensors for this application. Wheat blends that approximated the low- and high-protein range of early generation wheat populations were obtained by mixing high protein (protein content > 12.5 % at 12 % moisture basis) and low-protein (protein content <11.5 %) wheat from hard red winter and hard white wheat varieties in proportions of 50:50 and 95:5 % mass. The sorter was set to either reject high- or low-protein wheat kernels. Wheat blends were then passed through the sorter five times where each pass removed 10% of the wheat mass. The bulk protein content of accepted kernels (accepts) and rejected kernels (rejects) were measured for each pass. For 50:50 blends, higher changes in protein content (about 1 %) relative to the original sample could be obtained from the first-pass rejects instead of the fifth-pass accepts (about 0.5 %). Two resorts of accepts would be needed to move 95:5 blends toward the direction of the dominant protein content. The sorter has potential to help breeders in shifting early generation wheat populations toward the target protein level. At this level of technology, sorting was partly driven by color and vitreousness differences between high- and low-protein wheat.

 

Detection of insect fragments in wheat flour by near-infrared spectroscopy. [p. 232-233]

J. Perez-Mendoza, J.E. Throne, F.E. Dowell, and J.E. Baker.

Primary pests of stored cereals that develop and feed inside grain kernels are the main source of insect fragments in wheat flour. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has set a defect action level of 75 or more insect fragments/50 gram of flour. The current standard flotation method for detecting insect fragments in flour is very labor intensive and expensive. We investigated the potential of near-NIR spectroscopy to detect insect fragments in wheat flour at the FDA defect action level. Fragments counts with both the NIR spectroscopy and the standard flotation methods correlated well with the actual number of fragments present in flour samples. However, the flotation method was more sensitive below the FDA defect action level than the NIR spectroscopy method. Although the flotation method is very sensitive at the FDA action level, this technique is time consuming (almost 2 h/sample) and expensive. Although NIR spectroscopy currently lacks the sensitivity of the flotation method, it is rapid, does not require sample preparation, and could be easily automated for a more sophisticated sampling protocol for large flour bulks. Therefore, this method should be reexamined in the future because NIR spectroscopy technology is rapidly improving.

 

Chronological age-grading of three stored-product beetles by using near-infrared spectroscopy. [p. 233]

J. Perez-Mendoza, J.E. Throne, F.E. Dowell, and J.E. Baker.

The rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.), the lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica F.), and the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum Herbst) are three of the most important pests of stored grain and processed grain products in the U.S. Successful management of these pests requires thorough sampling protocols and subsequent decision-making based on predictive population models or expert system analysis. Because oviposition by these species is not temporally uniform, the accuracy of predictive models used to manage these species can be improved significantly if the age-structure of the pest population is incorporated. However, except for S. oryzae, no information on methods to determine the chronological or physiological age of these Coleopterans is known. We previously showed that NIR spectroscopy, a rapid procedure, can be used to determine chronological age of the house fly, a relatively short-lived Dipteran. The objectives of this study were to determine if NIR spectroscopy could be used for determination of chronological age in these three long-lived species of beetles, to determine the role of cuticular lipids in the ability of NIR spectroscopy to age-grade adult S. oryzae, and to determine whether water content in adult weevils varies with age and if NIR wavelengths that are absorbed by water have any effect on the ability to determine age. When life spans are normalized on a scale from 0 to 1, the confidence limits on predicted ages for unsexed adults of each species were about ± 0.3. Thus, younger adults within the first one-third of their life can be easily differentiated from older adults. Based on beta coefficients, absorbance regions corresponding to CH3, CH2, and CH groups were the most important for NIR spectroscopy age-grading in the three species. These methyl groups are common constituents of most insect cuticular and internal lipids. Our results provide evidence that these compounds have a significant role in NIR absorption and NIR age classification. Excluding wavelengths associated with H2O absorbance reduced the percentage of correct age classification.

 

Determining vitreousness of durum wheat using transmitted and reflected images. [p. 233]

N. Wang, N. Zhang, F. E. Dowell, and T. Pearson.

Durum wheat production accounts for approximately 8 % of the wheat production worldwide and is mainly used to make semolina for macaroni, spaghetti, and other pasta products. The best durum wheat for pasta products should appear hard, glassy and translucent, and have excellent amber color, good cooking quality, and high protein content. Nonvitreous (starchy) kernels are opaque and softer, and result in decreased yield of coarse semolina. Thus, vitreousness of durum wheat has been used as one of the major quality attributes in grading. Traditionally, grain grading has been primarily done by visual inspection of trained personnel. This method is subjective, tedious, and also produces great variations in inspection results between inspectors. The objective of this research was to examine the used of digital imaging technology for determining durum vitreousness. Results showed that 100 % of nonvitreous kernels and 92.6 % of mottled kernels, which is one of the hardest defect categories to consistently detect visually, could be correctly classed. Results of the study also indicated that using transmitted illumination may greatly reduce the hardware and software requirements for the inspection system while providing faster and more accurate results for inspection of vitreousness of durum wheat.

 

The effectiveness of a high-pressure, water-fogging system in controlling dust emissions at grain receiving. [p. 234]

D.L. Brabec, R.G. Maghirang, and M.E. Casada.

Grain dust at the receiving area is a fire hazard, a health concern, and a sanitation problem and should be controlled. The effectiveness of a high-pressure, water-fogging system in controlling grain dust emissions was evaluated with corn and wheat while spouting 2.1 m3 (60 bu) of grain into a test chamber. Dust/fog emissions and deposits along with entrained airflows were measured for four fog treatments, a control, and an air-blower treatment, each at two grain flow rates. The uncontrolled dust emissions varied with grain type and grain-flow rate. Water-fog sprays, when applied across the top of the test chamber, redirected the airflow downstream of the spray nozzles, and reduced dust emissions significantly. Dust reductions ranged from 60 % to 84 % for corn and 35 % to 73 % for wheat. However, the sprays produced significant fog emissions and deposits in proportion to the liquid supply. At the highest spray-fog rate (855 g/min), fog emission was 32 g/min (3.8 %), and fog deposits ranged from 1.4 to 7.1 mg/cm2/min.

 

Handling effects on commingling and residual grain in an elevator. [p. 234]

M.E. Ingles, M.E. Casada, and R.G. Maghirang.

Fundamental data are needed that identify and quantify where commingling occurs during identity preserved grain handling at grain elevators so that grains with special desirable characteristics can be kept at a desirable level of purity. This study measured the level of commingling and the weight of residual grain left in equipment when receiving two different colors of corn at the research elevator facility of the USDA-ARS, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center (GMPRC), Manhattan, Kansas. In these tests only the first 15 bu of grain (approximately 1 % of the leg rate per hour) were commingled at greater than a one-percent level. Only the first 40 bu of grain (approximately 2 % of the leg rate per hour) were contaminated at greater than a half-percent level. In a standard operation with a small truckload (300 bu) of corn, the total commingling after the receiving pit and elevator boot amounted to 0.18 % while commingling percentages with weighing scale, grain cleaner and grain scalper were 0.22 %, 0.24 %, and 0.01 %, respectively. This information is needed by elevator operators to better segregate grain with desirable characteristics into separate channels for delivery to end-users. The information is also useful to grain processors for improving their handling of specialty grains.

 

A novel approach for analyzing grain facility heat treatment data. [p. 234]

H. Akdogan, M. Casada, A. Dowdy, and B. Subramanyam.

This research investigated the use and effectiveness of high temperature for control of stored-product insects in a grain processing facility. Two different heating methods were compared. One method of heating used gas heaters that were placed outside the building. Hot air was channeled inside the building with ducts. The other method used portable electric heaters placed within the building. For both methods, it was important to keep the heat throughout the building as well-mixed as possible, with treatment temperature in the 50-60 C range to kill stored-product insects. A simple mathematical equation was used to describe the percent floor surface area of the facility that was under 50°C as a function of treatment duration. The same equation was successfully used to correlate maximum floor temperature to percent floor surface area. Maps of maximum floor temperatures of the floor surface were created. These computer-generated maps were useful for determining under- and overheated areas of the heat-treated facility. Under-heated areas carry high risk of insect survival and overheated areas pose risk of damaging heat-sensitive equipment. The electric heating in this study resulted in more under-heated areas than gas heating system, whereas gas heating was slower to reach to the target temperature of 50°C.

 

Books published. [p. 234-235]

Wheat Gluten Protein Analysis (Edited by P.R. Shewry and G.L. Lookhart). This 198-page book was published by the AACC Eagan Press, St. Paul, MN. The analysis of wheat gluten proteins has a long and distinguished history, extending over a period exceeding 250 years, reflecting the status of wheat as one of the three major cereal crops that dominate world agriculture (the others being maize and rice) and in particular, its preëminent position as raw material for food processing. The wide use in the food industry depends mainly on the properties of the gluten proteins. These confer viscoelastic properties of doughs, which are exploited in the production of a range of foods including bread, other baked goods, pasta, and noodles. A massive amount of literature has developed on the analysis and properties of wheat gluten proteins, with a particular emphasis on explaining the differences in the functional (i.e. processing) properties that occur between cultivars in terms of variation in the amounts, properties, and interactions of individual gluten protein components. Because gluten proteins have unusual properties, being soluble in alcohol/water mixtures and often present as high molecular mass polymers, much of this literature is published in specialist journals and can be confusing to the nonexpert. The present volume aims to provide standard protocols for the extraction and analysis of wheat gluten proteins based on methods that have been tried and tested in the authors' laboratories. Extensive practical details and tips are provided, as well as suggestions for modifications and examples of applications. We hope that it will prove of value to established cereal chemists as well as those just entering the exciting field of wheat protein chemistry.

Proceeding of the Second International Wheat Quality Conference (Edited by O.K. Chung and J.L. Steele). This 509-page, soft-covered book of the Second International Wheat Quality Conference (IWQC-II) was published by the Grain Industry Alliance (GIA), Manhattan, KS. Following the success of the first International Wheat Quality Conference in 1997 and also held in Manhattan and sponsored by Manhattan's wheat research triad; the American Institute of Baking, Kansas State University, and USDA-ARS Grain Marketing and Production Research Center, the IWQC-I was held 20-24 May, 2001, and featured an excellent group of world-renowned speakers and more than 250 scientists throughout the world from 37 countries attended. The conference was sponsored by the GIA (Dr. Ron Madl, President) and endorsed by the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC), the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE), and the International Association for Cereal Science and Technology (ICC). The ICC, headquarters in Vienna, Austria, held its Executive Committee Meeting in Manhattan prior to IWQC-II and was the first ICC event held in the U.S. since its founding in 1955, because Dr. Okkyung Kim Chung, the conference co-chair, was president of ICC.

The topics include issues and concerns of end users, wheat breeding and biotechnology, quality assessment methods, food safety, international quality standards and marketing procedures, economics of wheat trade in the world, and advances in wheat processing technology. Each session was one-half day long, with a one-hour discussion at the end of the session. Discussion sessions were led by experts from Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Mexico, the Netherlands, Russia, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the U.S. The proceedings contained full-length papers of invited speakers of each technical session and 80 abstracts of the papers presented at the poster session.

 

Publications. [p. 235-238]

• Akdogan H, Casada M, Dowdy A, and Subramanyam B. 2003. A novel approach for analyzing grain facility heat treatment data. J Stored Product Res (in press).
• Arora S, Lyne R, Alviola JN, Lookhart GL, Waniska RD, and Chung OK. 2003. Development of a micro-scale procedure to prepare wheat flour tortillas. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. P. 140.
• Bean SR and Lookhart GL. 2003. Separation of gluten proteins by high-performance capillary electrophoresis. In: Wheat Gluten Protein Analysis. (Shewry PR and Lookhart GL eds). AACC Eagan Press, St Paul, MN. Chapter 5, pp. 91-113.
• Bean SR and Lookhart GL. 2003. Methods for analyzing polymeric proteins of wheat and their impact on wheat quality. In: Program and Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim Meeting, Wheat Quality Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, 17-19 March, 2003, Honolulu, HI. P. 17.
• Bean S and Tilley M. 2003. Separation of water soluble proteins from cereals by free zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE). Cereal Chem 80:505-515.
• Bechtel DB and Wilson JD. 2003. Endosperm structural changes in wheat during drying of maturing caryopsis. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. Pp. 111-112.
• Billate RD, Maghirang RG, and Casada ME. 2003. Measurement of particulate emissions from corn receiving operations with simulated hopper bottom trucks. Transact ASAE (in press).
• Brabec DL, Maghirang RG, and Casada ME. 2003. The effectiveness of high-pressure, water-mist sprays in controlling dust emissions at grain receiving. Transact ASAE (in press).
• Caley MS, Chung OK, Park SH, and Haden ZL. 2003. Comparison of pup straight dough method with pound sponge and dough method and pup sponge and dough method. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88thAACC Ann Meet. Pp. 129-130.
• Chung OK. 2003. Welcome Reception Statement. In: Proc 2nd Internat Wheat Quality Conf (Chung OK and Steele JL eds). Grain Industry Alliance, Manhattan, KS. Pp. 17-18.
• Chung OK, Bean SR, Tilley M, Lookhart GL, Dowell FE, Ram MS, Seitz LM, Casada ME, Ohm JB, Park SH, Seabourn BW, Caley MS, Maghirang EB, Wilson JD, Bechtel DB, Pearson TC, Arthur FH, Lyne RK, Brabec DB, Throne JE, Baker JE, Hubbard JD, and Downing JM. 2003. Wheat research in the U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center. Ann Wheat Newslet 49:185-198.
• Chung OK, Ohm JB, Lookhart GL, and Bruns RF. 2003. Quality characteristics of hard winter and hard spring wheats grown under an over-wintering condition. J Cereal Sci 37:91-99.
• Chung OK, Park SH, Kim YS, Tilley M, Seabourn BW, and Lookhart GL. 2003. Improvement of U.S. bread wheat quality. In: Proc 32nd Ann Meet of the U.S.-Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources (UJNR), Food and Agriculture Panel. National Food Research Institute Press, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan. Pp. 153-160.
• Chung OK, Park SH, and Seib PA. 2003. Polyphenol oxidase activity in wheat grain kernels, meals, and flours in relation to noodle color. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. P. 116.
• Chung OK, Park SH, Tilley M, and Lookhart GL. 2003. Improving wheat quality. In: Breadmaking: Improving Quality (Cauvain SP ed). Woodhead Pub. Co., London, U.K. Chapter 26, pp. 536-561.
• Chung OK and Steele JL eds. 2003. Proceedings of the 2nd International Wheat Quality Conference. Grain Industry Alliance, Manhattan, KS. 509 pages.
• Chung OK and Steele JL. 2003. Preface. In: Proc 2nd Internat Wheat Quality Conf (Chung OK and Steele JL eds). Grain Industry Alliance, Manhattan, KS. Pp. iii-iv.
• Chung OK, Tilley M, Park SH, Caley MS, and Seabourn BW. 2003. Directions in United States wheat quality. In: Program and Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim Meeting, Wheat Quality Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, 17-19 March, 2003, Honolulu, HI. P. 14.
• Don C, Lookhart G, Naeem HA, MacRitchie F, and Hamer RJ. 2003. Glutenin particles are affected by growing conditions. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. P. 77.
• Graybosch RA, Souza E, Berzonsky W, Baenziger PS, and Chung OK. 2003. Functional properties of waxy flours: genotypic and environmental effects. J Cereal Sci 38:69-76.
• Graybosch RA, Peterson CJ, and Chung OK. 2004. Release of N95l11881 and 95l9521 strong gluten 1BL1RS wheats. Crop Sci (in press).
• Graybosch RA, Peterson CJ, Porter DR, and Chung OK. 2004. Registration of N96L9970 greenbug resistant wheat (Triticum aestivum L). Crop Sci (in press).
• Graybosch RA, Souza E, Berzonsky W, Baenziger PS, McVey DV, and Chung OK. 2004. Release of nineteen waxy spring wheats. Crop Sci (in press).
• Haley SD, Quick JS, Johnson JJ, Peairs FB, Stromberger JA, Clayshulte SR, Clifford BL, Rudolph JB, Chung OK, and Seabourn, BW. 2004. Registration of 'Ankor' wheat. Crop Sci (in press).
• Hurkman WJ, McCue KF, Altenbach SB, Korn AM, Tanaka CK, Kothari KM, Bechtel DB, Wilson JD, Anderson OD, and Dupont FM. 2003. Effect of temperature on expression of genes encoding enzymes for starch biosynthesis in developing wheat endosperm. Plant Sci 164:873-881.
• Ibrahim AMH, Haley SD, Jin Y, Langham MAC, Stymiest C, Rickertsen J, Kalsbeck S, Little R, Chung OK, Seabourn BW, and McVey DV. 2004. Registration of Expedition wheat. Crop Sci (in press).
• Ingles ME, Casada ME, and Maghirang RG. 2003. Handling effects on commingling and residual grain in an elevator. Transact ASAE 46:1625-1631.
• Kim YS, Flores RA, Chung OK, and Bechtel DB. 2003. Physical and chemical characterization of wheat flour milling co-products. J Food Process Eng 26:469-488.
• Lookhart GL and Bean SR. 2003. Methods for analyzing polymeric proteins of wheat and their impact on wheat quality. In: Program and Abstract Book 2003 AACC Pacific Rim Meeting, Wheat Quality Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, 17-19 March, 2003, Honolulu, HI. P. 12.
• Lookhart GL, Bean SR, and Bietz JA. 2003. HPLC of gluten monomeric proteins. In: Wheat Gluten Protein Analysis (Shewry PR and Lookhart GL eds). AACC Eagan Press, St Paul, MN. Chapter 4, pp. 61-89.
• Lookhart GL, Bean SR, and Bietz JA. 2003. Reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography in grain applications. Feature Article. Cereal Foods World 48:9-17.
• Lookhart GL, Bean SR, Lyne R, Chung OK, Chandra S, Ohm JB, Stearn M, and Piland S. 2003. Relationship of relative amounts of insoluble polymeric proteins to dough consistency for flours from commercial mills and individual cultivars. In: Program and Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim Meeting, Wheat Quality Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, 17-19 March, 2003, Honolulu, HI. P. 17.
• Maghirang EB, and Dowell FE. 2003. Hardness measurement of bulk wheat by single-kernel visible and near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Cereal Chem 80:316-322.
• Park SH, Chung OK, Seib PA, and Bean SR. 2003. In: Wheat protein subclasses in relation to characteristics of Quality Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, 17-19 March, 2003, Honolulu, HI. Pp. 17-18.
• Pasikatan MC, Haque E, Spillman CK, Steele JL, and Milliken GA. 2003. Granulation sensing of first-break ground wheat using a near-infrared reflectance spectrometer: Studies with soft red winter wheats. J Sci Food and Agric 83:151-157.
• Pasikatan MC and Dowell FE. 2003. High-speed segregation of high- and low-protein single wheat seeds. Cereal Chem 81:145-150.
• Perez-Mendoza J, Throne JE, Dowell FE, and Baker JE. 2003. Chronological age-grading of three stored-product beetles by using near-infrared spectroscopy. J Econ Entol (in press).
• Perez-Mendoza J, Throne JE, Dowell FE, and Baker JE. 2003. Detection of insect fragments in wheat flour by near-infrared spectroscopy. J Stored Prod Res 39:305-312.
• Ram MS, Dowell FE, and Seitz LM. 2003. FT-Raman spectra of unsoaked and NaOH-soaked wheat kernels, bran and ferulic acid. Cereal Chem 80:188-192.
• Ram MS, Seitz LM, and Dowell FE. 2003. Natural fluorescence of red and white wheat kernels. Cereal Chem (in press).
• Razote EB, Maghirang RG, Seitz LM, and Jeon IJ. 2003. Characterization of volatile organic compounds in airborne dust in swine finishing barn. ASAE Mid-Central Conf.
• Razote EB, Maghirang RG, Seitz LM and Jeon IJ. 2003. Characterization of volatile organic compounds on airborne dust in a swine finishing barn. Amer Soc Agric Eng Transact (in press).
• Rosell CM, Wang J, Aja S, Bean SR, and Lookhart GL. 2003. Wheat flour proteins as affected by transglutaminase and glucose oxidase. Cereal Chem (in press).
• Seabourn BW and Chung OK. 2003. Application of NIR for rapid wheat quality analysis. In: Program and Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim Meeting, Wheat Quality Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, 17-19 March, 2003, Honolulu, HI. P. 13.
• Seabourn BW, Chung OK, Seib PA, and Mathewson PR. 2003. A method for monitoring the rheology and protein secondary structure of dough during mixing using FT-HATR spectroscopy. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. P. 136.
• Seitz LM and Ram MS. 2003. Metabolites of lesser grain borer in grains. J Agric Food Chem (in press).
• Seitz LM and Ram MS. 2003. Free tryptophan in wheat grain and milling fractions. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. P. 112.
• Shewry PR and Lookhart GL eds. 2003. Wheat Gluten Protein Analysis. AACC, Eagan Press, St Paul, MN. 198 pp.
• Singh H, Lyne RK, Chung OK, Seib PA, and Lookhart GL. 2003. Comparison of different strip length for evaluating rheological properties of tortillas. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. P. 147.
• Singh H, Lyne RK, Chung OK, Seib PA, and Lookhart GL. 2003. The staling of wheat flour tortillas studied by a texture analyzer and SE-HPLC. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. Pp. 147-148.
• Tilley KA and Tilley M. 2003. Modifying tyrosine crosslink formation in wheat dough by controlling innate enzymatic activity. In: Symp Control of Endogenous Enzymes in Food, program book of the Food Institute of Food Technologists Ann Meet. P. 6.
• Tilley KA and Tilley M. 2003. Modification of dityrosine formation using enzymes and free radical scavengers. U.S. Patent Applications S/N 10/464,795, filed 17 June, 2003 (Patent).
• Tilley M. 2003. PCR amplification of wheat sequences from DNA extracted during milling and baking. Cereal Chem (in press).
• Tilley M and Bean SR. 2003. Separation of water soluble proteins from cereals by high performance capillary electrophoresis. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. P. 103.
• Tilley M and O'Brien L. 2003. Session II: Wheat Breeding and Biotechnology, co-chair introduction. In: Proc 2nd Internat Wheat Quality Conf (Chung OK and Steele JL eds). Grain Industry Alliance: Manhattan, KS. P. 89.
• Tilley M and Tilley KA. 2003. Tyrosine crosslink formation in wheat dough: Innate enzymatic activity. In: Program and Abstract Book of the 88th AACC Ann Meet. P. 121.
• Van der Kamp JW and Tilley M. 2003. Session II: Wheat Breeding and Biotechnology Session Facilitator Summary. In: Proc 2nd Internat Wheat Quality Conf (Chung OK and Steele JL eds). Grain Industry Alliance, Manhattan, KS. P. 143.
• Wang N, Zhang N, Dowell FE, and Pearson T. 2003. Determination of durum wheat vitreousness using transmissive and reflective images. Transact ASAE (in press).
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